DESTRUCTION OF USS MAINE -
What was the cause?
General:
The question of who or what sunk the USS MAINE is truly the
greatest and longest debated question of the Spanish American
War. In actuality, no one can absolutely prove the cause of the
explosion. There are a variety of compelling theories, and this
article will attempt to touch on some of the more plausible
theories.
What is known is that there were actually two explosions that
fateful night. The first explosion, of unknown origin, caused a
second explosion in at least one of the USS MAINE's magazines
(ammunition storage rooms). It is generally agreed that magazine
A-14M, which contained reserve ammunition for the six inch guns
and additional saluting powder, blew up, creating more damage
than the original explosion itself.
Immediately after the accident, when Captain Sigsbee notified the
U.S. government in Washington of the disaster, he was quick to
state that all public opinion should be suspended until it could be
determined what caused the explosion. Sigsbee was attempting to
head off what he knew would be the reaction in the United States -
that the vessel was sunk by Spain. In spite of Sigsbee's words, the
American newspapers were quick to accuse Spain of blowing up
the vessel through the use of an underwater mine. Immediately,
public pressure began to build in the United States to take action
against Spain.
American President William McKinley did not want to be goaded
into war with Spain until evidence was obtained that definitely
linked Spain to the disaster. He called for a board of naval officers to investigate the actual cause of the explosion. After several weeks of studying the statements of survivors and the condition of the wreck as seen by divers, the conclusion of the naval Court of Inquiry was that the vessel was blown up by an external mine. The board could not find any evidence indicating who may have planted the mine.
At the same time, the Spanish authorities were advancing their
own theories for the loss of the MAINE. Instead of a mine or any
malicious act, Spanish investigators claimed that the loss was the
result of an accident aboard the vessel which ignited the
magazines. These claims fell upon deaf ears in the United States as
anti-Spanish sentiment grew.
As the MAINE passed into history, the United States Navy
reopened the investigation in the mid-1970's. Though no absolute
conclusion could be reached, the general consensus was that the
Spanish investigators were right....the USS MAINE was lost
because of a tragic accident aboard the ill-fated vessel.
The First Theory - The Mine:
The evidence cited by the Court of Inquiry set up by President
McKinley immediately after the disaster to explain its belief that a mine was the source of the explosions on the USS MAINE was as
follows: The standard procedures had been followed in regards to
the monitoring of the heat in the magazines, and verifying the
safety of the coal bunkers adjacent to the magazines. Based on
these items, the board concluded that the crew and officers of the
vessel were not negligent in their duties. Two distinct explosions
were heard. The first, which generally was described as sounding
like a shot, caused the bow to lift a bit out of the water. The
second explosion was louder and more prolonged, resulting from
the explosions within the magazines. The board determined that
the damage aft of frame 30 was generally the result of the
magazine explosion. However, the inverted *V* at approximately
frame 18, where the keel and bottom plating were forced up
through the ship and above the surface of the water, the Court
considered to be evidence of a mine under the bottom of the vessel
at that point. Importantly, the Court went on to state that it could not determine who had set the mine and could no affix blame to any party or country.
Of course, during the initial investigation, the question arose if the MAINE's officers and crew took precautions against mines. In fact, the crew of the USS MAINE was aware of the possibility of mines in Havana Harbor even before the vessel left Key West, and
actions were taken to help alleviate the danger from this source.
Upon entering the harbor, Captain Sigsbee requested that the
MAINE be given the berth occupied by the Spanish warship,
ALFONSO XII, which Sigsbee knew would be mine-free.
Unfortunately that vessel was in such a condition that it could not
move. The MAINE was directed to Buoy 5, where it moored without incident. Beginning with the entrance into the harbor, and
continuing up until the vessel*s loss, Sigsbee kept the men at
ready, with a full one quarter of them being on duty at all times.
The possibility of being blown up was a frequent topic of
conversation in the officers' wardroom and vigilance was
maintained.
There were incidents that kept the crew on their guard. For
instance. Lieutenant Commander Wainwright, the MAINE's
executive officer watched a small vessel that appeared to be
equipped for mine laying move about the harbor. Captain Sigsbee,
while attending a bullfight to gauge the feeling of the people, was
given a printed circular that referred to the MAINE*s presence,
cast epithets at the Americans, and stated "the moment of action
has arrived....Let us teach these vile traitors that we have not lost out pride....Death to the Americans..." The MAINE, however,
stayed in the harbor for several weeks, unmolested. The explosion
happened to coincide with a change in the direction the ship was
facing as she lazily drifted at her mooring buoy. This furthered the belief in the source being a mine, which had been planted in
advance in the pre-determined mooring area of the MAINE, knowing that all that was needed was for the wind to change and the vessel to drift into it.
While the Americans were conducting their initial investigation of
the wreckage, so were the Spaniards. The Spaniards had proposed
a joint Spanish-American commission to study the cause of the
wreck, but the U.S. State Department demurred. The Spaniards
conducted their own investigation. Immediately, the issue of
jurisdiction over the wreckage arose. American divers were
allowed on to the wreck, but could not examine the harbor bottom.
The Spaniards were allow to study the harbor bottom, but were not
allowed on the wreckage. The result was that neither the American
or the Spanish investigations were complete.
Based on their study of the harbor bottom and on witness
testimony, the Spanish investigators pointed out many facts which
went against the theory of a mine being used to initiate the
explosion. First, no witness reported a column of water shooting
up adjacent to the vessel, which would have been indicative of a
mine. Secondly, the sound of the initial explosion was generally
described by witnesses as being sharp, like the report of a gun. A
mine blast would have been muffled as it was under water.
Thirdly, no large fish kill was reported, as is common with mine
explosions. Importantly, no remains of a mine, wiring leading to
shore, or mine anchoring mechanisms were ever found. Based on a
lack of evidence indicating a mine, the Spanish investigators
concluded that the explosion was the result of an accident aboard
the vessel which ignited the vessel's magazines.
A second American investigation, set up in 1911, came to basically
the same conclusion as the first American Court of Inquiry, with
one major difference. This board, which was able to view the
wreckage of the USS MAINE when it was within the cofferdam
with the water drained away, decided that the mine must have been
placed outside the hull between frames 28 and 31, where the
bottom plating was dished upward. In this theory, the mine blast
exploded the ammunition and powder in magazine A-14M, causing the majority of the damage, including the infamous inverted "V."
A third major official American analysis was done in the 1970's
under orders of Admiral Hyman Rickover. While this analysis
advanced an internal accident as a more probable cause (see
below), it could not rule out the possibility of a contact mine,
which was a weapon in the Spanish arsenal, from being the initial
cause of the explosion. However, Rickover's report did make note
that a non-contact mine would have forced a deluge of water into
the vessel's hull, and would have stopped any fire threatening the
magazine rather than actually blowing it up.
Lastly, and very significantly, no one since the vessel sunk, has
ever come forward to claim responsibility or had any credible
evidence to indicate who did the deed. No records concerning
plans to blow up the MAINE have been unearthed in Spain, Cuba
or the United States.
Who would have had the motive and the means to blow up the
USS MAINE with a mine?
Any discussion of the mine theory really must address the issues of
motive and means to carry out the act. What country or entity had
a good motive for attacking the vessel and the ability to formulate
and carry out the attack? There are several choices - Spain, the
United States, Cuban Insurgents, or a unknown radical group. The
various possibilities are discussed below.
Spain?
Actually, Spain had very little motive for trying to blow up the
MAINE or to place the mine. Such action was sure to convince the
United States, which had been teetering on the brink of
intervention for some time, to intervene in Cuba. The Spanish
were already fighting a stalemated war in Cuba, and were in no
condition to take to the field against any additional forces. The
supply line between Spain and Cuba was long, whereas the supply
line for the Americans would have been only 90 miles. The
Spanish also knew the actual condition of their navy, something
that was not commonly known throughout the world - the navy
was in no condition to fight. The only actual benefit was that, if
war arrived, the United States would be equipped with one less
second class battleship to use against her. This is a poor motive for a country trying to avoid a war. After the explosion, the Spanish Navy quickly came to aid of the American wounded, launching
boats to rescue the men from the water. Spanish officers quickly
searched out Captain Sigsbee and offered their condolences of the
loss and aided him in any way possible. All in all, Spain did not
have a plausible motive to sink the MAINE. Spain did, however,
have the means, being well versed in mine theory.
United States?
The United States was becoming increasingly aware that to defend
itself and to grow economically it could not merely look to its own
shrinking frontiers any longer. It would have to begin to think in
terms of world-wide trade, and the ability to defend its interests.
The government was concerned about the instability in Cuba, and
wanted Spain to remove its troops from the Western Hemisphere,
leaving the United States as the dominant force in that area of the
world. Some have claimed that this would have been motive
enough for the United States to sink the MAINE, and then blame it
on the Spanish as a pretext to attack Spain. This theory is not
logical. First, if the U.S. wanted a pretext to attack Spain,
destroying one of its larger naval vessels as the pretext would be
illogical, since the U.S. would need that vessel to fight Spain! A
small gunboat would have sufficed! Secondly, Spain was considered to be militarily superior to the United States, and the United States' future naval victories were not generally foreseeable. Basically, the United States motive would only make sense if victory were certain, and it was not. This theory seems to be based on hindsight into the outcome of the conflict, and does not reflect the understanding that the Americans had of the Spanish forces in early 1898. The U.S., of course, had the ability to sink the MAINE if it chose.
Cuban Insurgents?
The Cuban Insurgents had been wanting aid from the Americans
for some time. The Insurgents would have realized that sinking the
MAINE would lead to war between the U.S. and Spain, with the
United States coming in on the side of the Insurgents. This was
similar in logic to the Insurgents' burning of large sugar cane
operations owned by Americans. The Americans, it was hoped,
would come in to defend their interests and fight the Spaniards. If
the MAINE could be sunk and the action made to look like a
Spanish act, an Insurgent victory could be assured. The Insurgents
did have a motive, but they probably did not have access to the
means to place a mine though they may have been able to obtain a
mine itself. Also, if the Insurgents did do it, they neglected to leave evidence that pointed to Spain.
Lastly, if the insurgents had the ability to perform this sort of
activity, mines would most likely have been used against some of
the many Spanish vessels of war which plied the waters of Cuba*s
harbors.
Unknown Radical Group?
It could be argued that a radical band of Americans, pro-American
Insurgents, or independently acting Spaniards may have had a
motive for sinking the MAINE. Some claims have even been made
suggesting that William Randolph Hearst of the New York Journal
was responsible. The possibilities for speculation along this line
are virtually innumerable. Some of these parties may have had
access to the weaponry necessary. However, no credible evidence
of such an action has ever arisen.
The Second Theory - The Accident!
Almost from the minute the vessel sunk, the thought that the
explosions aboard the MAINE could have been the result of an
accident arose. Even Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Theodore
Roosevelt, a self-proclaimed jingo, admitted that an accident was a
possibility, and went on to guess that the matter would never be
fully settled. Roosevelt's boss, the secretary of the Navy, John
Long, also considered an accident to be a possible source of the
MAINE's loss Already by May, 1898, authorities around the world were questioning the mine theory based on both motive and on certain aspects of the wreck. There were discrepancies. Basically,
however, if the initial explosion was not external (i.e., a mine)
what could have been the cause of the internal explosion?
All steam powered vessels of this period had a danger of which all
crewmen were aware. The danger was the spontaneous combustion
of coal dust. Coal was loaded into vessels such as the MAINE and
was stored in large rooms called coal bunkers. Loading the coal
was a dirty and dusty operation, and coal dust was a perennial pox
on the men working in the bowels of the ship. Coal dust, when
dispersed into the air in a certain concentration, under certain
temperatures and humidity, was subject to bursting into flame.
This could occur in a virtually empty coal bunker, where there was
really nothing but dust. Often more dangerous, however, was when
this occurred deep within a coal bunker, under tons of coal. The
heat produced would build up, feeding on more coal and slowly
heating up the bunker itself, its bulkheads (walls) and decks (floor and ceiling).
During the Spanish American War, several of the MAINE's most
famous contemporaries, including the USS OREGON, USS BROOKLYN, USS NEW YORK and the USS CINCINNATI, reported coal bunker fires. On the OREGON, the fire was given away by smoke and heat noticed by the crew. On the BROOKLYN, where an automatic alarm system detected the fire, the possibility of an explosion of a magazine was very real. The vessel's officers stated that they expected an explosion at any
moment.
A coal bunker fire aboard a naval vessel was a dangerous event,
especially when considering naval architecture of the times. Coal
bunkers were treated as additional armor aboard a naval vessel.
They were often placed along the hull of the ship, to aid in
protecting the ship's more vital areas, such as engine rooms, boiler rooms, and magazines. The idea was that a shell or torpedo
penetrating the hull would hit the mass of coal in the bunker and
be stopped. The damage could be bad, but not as bad as that which
would have resulted from the shell or torpedo hitting one of the
ship's more vital areas.
The danger inherent in this system of design was that a coal bunker
fire could occur in a space adjacent to an ammunition magazine.
Since both of these areas were not occupied spaces (i.e., no
crewmen lived or were stationed in these areas), a fire could go
undetected until the temperature in the magazine got to the
combustion point. The possibility of a coal bunker fire exploding
a magazine was so well known, that just after the loss of the
MAINE, the Washington Star newspaper took a poll of naval
officers. The majority expected that the explosions on the MAINE
resulted from this very scenario.
To combat the possibility of coal bunker fires aboard naval
vessels, the navy developed procedures for maintaining a watch
on the conditions within these spaces, both through physical
inspection and primitive remote sensing. The USS MAINE was
equipped with an alarm system, similar to that which may have
saved the USS BROOKLYN from the disaster of a magazine explosion. The MAINE's magazines and coal bunkers were checked regularly, and no indication of a fire was ever detected. The coal bunkers were also in a location where some of its bulkheads were exposed along a passage through crewmen often passed, however, no crewman reported any sign of the tell-tale heat and smoke of a coal bunker fire, as was noticed on the USS OREGON.
Still, the investigators working on the study commissioned by
Admiral Rickover came to the conclusion that coal bunker fire did
indeed cause the loss of the MAINE. In the case of the USS MAINE, the magazine that is thought to have exploded had a coal bunker on two sides of it. The Rickover report concluded that there may have been an undetected fire in coal bunker A-16 and that the fire may have heated the bulkhead adjoining magazine A-14M. The first, sharp-sounding explosion may have been the saluting powder, and the second explosion the general contents of the magazine. The explosion ripped the decks, bending some of them forward. The bow, only attached at the keel any longer, would have become unbalanced and capsized, twisting the keel upward and above the surface of the water in the vicinity of frame 18, thus explaining one of the features of the wreck which seemed to be one of the strongest indicators of a mine. Virtually all of the damage to the MAINE could be explained through this theory, as could the lack of evidence indicating a mine was present.
This is currently the most commonly accepted explanation for the
loss of the vessel.
Conclusions:
The final conclusions regarding the cause of the sinking of the
USS MAINE will never be final! Most experts are of the opinion
that the cause of the explosion was internal, the result of a
combination of a coal bunker fire and bad design. Most experts
also believe that Spain was not involved. Some still advocate the
mine theory, while still not implicating Spain, since she had
virtually no motive for the act. If the explosion was the result of a mine, the work was most likely the work of a radical party of
extremists of unknown origins who left no evidence behind.
Bibliography:
Blow, Michael, A Ship to Remember, New York: William Morrow
and Co., Inc.,1992.
Graham, George Edward, Schley and Santiago, Chicago: W. B.
Conkey Company, 1902.
Green, Nathan C., The War with Spain, Baltimore: International
News and Book Co., 1898.
Jeffers, H. Paul, Colonel Roosevelt: Theodore Roosevelt Goes to War,
1897-1898, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.
